Revista de Investigación en Ciencias de la Educación

Vol. 4, No 8, julio - diciembre 2026, 49-60

ISSN: 3073-1461

https://revistasfiecyt.com/index.php/riced

The role of lexical bundle use in the development of writing proficiency

among EFL students

El rol del uso de los conjuntos léxicos en el desarrollo de la competencia

escrita en estudiantes de inglés como lengua extranjera (EFL)

Christian Andrés Rea Almachi

Veronica Gissela Jarrin Escobar

Autor de correspondencia:

reachristianandres@gmail.com

Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica.

Ecuador.

reachristianandres@gmail.com

https://orcid.org/0009-0008-2521-401X

Universidad Tecnológica Indoamérica.

Ecuador.

vjarrin.roale@gmail.com

https://orcid.org/0009-0007-1990-0710

Datos del artículo:

Recibido: marzo 25, 2026

Aceptado: abril 24, 2026

Publicación: julio 08, 2026

Keywords:

lexical bundles, writing proficiency,

EFL learners, academic writing,

formulaic language.

Palabras clave:

conjuntos léxicos, competencia en la

expresión escrita, estudiantes de

inglés como lengua extranjera,

redacción académica, expresiones

fijas.

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.53877/r7p3gp89

Este artículo está bajo la licencia

Abstract

Writing proficiency is widely recognized as one of the most demanding

skills for learners of English as a Foreign Language due to the linguistic,

rhetorical, and organizational demands of academic writing. Within

this context, lexical bundles have attracted considerable attention

because of their role in discourse organization and formulaic language

use. However, previous research has reported mixed findings

regarding the relationship between lexical bundle use and writing

proficiency. Therefore, this study conducted a systematic review to

examine this relationship. Adopting a qualitative documentary

approach and following the PRISMA framework, the review analyzed

19 studies retrieved from the Web of Science and Scopus databases. The

findings suggest that lexical bundle use is closely associated with

writing proficiency, particularly in relation to rhetorical organization,

discourse awareness, textual cohesion, and academic register. More

proficient writers tend to use lexical bundles with greater variation,

structural sophistication, and communicative functionality, whereas

less proficient writers often rely on more repetitive and limited

patterns. The findings also highlight the influence of contextual and

cross-linguistic factors on lexical bundle use. Overall, lexical bundles

appear to be an important component of academic writing

development and have relevant pedagogical implications for writing

instruction.

Resumen

La competencia escrita es ampliamente reconocida como una de las

habilidades más exigentes para los estudiantes de inglés como lengua

extranjera debido a las demandas lingüísticas, retóricas y organizativas

propias de la escritura académica. En este contexto, los conjuntos

léxicos han recibido considerable atención debido a su papel en la

organización del discurso y el uso de lenguaje formulaico. Sin embargo,

las investigaciones previas han reportado resultados diversos en

relación con la asociación entre el uso de conjuntos léxicos y la

competencia escrita. Por lo tanto, este estudio llevó a cabo una revisión

sistemática con el objetivo de examinar dicha relación. Mediante un

enfoque documental cualitativo y siguiendo el marco PRISMA, la

revisión analizó 19 estudios recuperados de las bases de datos Web of

Science y Scopus. Los hallazgos sugieren que el uso de conjuntos

léxicos está estrechamente asociado con la competencia escrita,

Christian Rea / Veronica Jarrin

RICEd: Revista de Investigación en Ciencias de la Educación, Vol. 4, No 8, julio - diciembre 2026, 49-60 50

particularmente en términos de organización retórica, conciencia

discursiva, cohesión textual y registro académico. Los escritores más

competentes tienden a utilizar conjuntos léxicos con mayor variación,

sofisticación estructural y funcionalidad comunicativa, mientras que

los escritores con menor competencia suelen recurrir a patrones más

repetitivos y limitados. Los hallazgos también destacan la influencia de

factores contextuales e interlingüísticos en el uso de conjuntos léxicos.

En conjunto, los conjuntos léxicos parecen constituir un componente

importante del desarrollo de la escritura académica y presentan

implicaciones pedagógicas relevantes para la enseñanza de la escritura.

Forma sugerida de citar (APA):

Rea Alma chi, C. A. y Jarrin Escobar, V. G. (2026). The role of lexical bundle use in the development of writing

proficiency among EFL students. RICEd: Revista de Investigación en Ciencias de la Educación. 4(8), 49-60.

https://doi.org/10.53877/r7p3gp89

INTRODUCTION

Writing plays an important role in people’s ability to participate actively in different areas of

life. In the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL), the development of writing skills

has become increasingly important worldwide as globalization and digital changes continue

to expand international communication and help students become active and responsible

participants in broader academic and social discussions (Peltzer et al., 2022). Furthermore,

writing is also regarded as a fundamental skill for EFL learners, for it enables EFL and ESL

learners to express their ideas, feelings, and thoughts in written form, while also contributing

to the development of vocabulary acquisition, grammatical accuracy, critical thinking, and

creativity (Mogesse et al., 2026). Thus, writing may be viewed as a core competence that

supports both effective communication and the development of higher-order academic and

linguistic abilities.

Writing is widely recognized as a fundamental component in learners’ cognitive

growth and academic success. For learners of English as a foreign language, it constitutes a

central skill for effective communication. Nevertheless, writing is frequently regarded as the

most demanding language skill to master due to its complexity. This complexity becomes

evident in several dimensions, including the processes of constructing and organizing ideas,

precise lexical selection, and the effective use of rhetorical strategies (Xu et al., 2025). Likewise,

writing in EFL contexts can be challenging for learners due to limited background knowledge,

reduced audience awareness, weak grammatical control, and difficulties managing the

linguistic and cognitive demands of written production (Fajrina et al., 2021). Taken together,

these perspectives suggest that writing in EFL is a highly demanding competence that

requires learners to simultaneously manage multiple cognitive, linguistic, and communicative

processes to achieve effective expression.

Effective writing in a specific genre requires knowledge of its structure and the

language patterns that characterize it (Wang et al., 2025). In this sense, formulaic language

plays a central role in shaping discourse. As Puimège (2024) states, “Formulaic sequences

make up a large proportion of L2 discourse and cover a wide range of multiword phrases,

including collocations, binomials, and idioms” (p. 164). Because it connects linguistic form

with meaningful communication, formulaic language represents a pedagogical resource

comparable in importance to other widely used instructional tools (García & Rea, 2021).

Therefore, acquiring formulaic language is a fundamental component of effective language

learning, as it supports and accelerates both comprehension and production processes

(Nordlund & Norberg, 2025).

The role of lexical bundle use in the development of writing proficiency among EFL students

Within this perspective, formulaic language must be taken into consideration, for it is common

in both written and spoken communication and consists of recurring word combinations that

carry specific pragmatic meanings and functions across different communicative contexts (Gu

& Li, 2024). As a component of formulaic language and the focus of the present research,

lexical bundles are typically understood as recurring sequences of three or more words that

tend to appear together within specific registers and function as fundamental components in

the organization of discourse (Amjad et al., 2021). Although lexical bundles are related to

formulaic language, they represent a more specific type of expression. Lexical bundles are

recurrent word sequences that commonly occur together in particular contexts, whereas

formulaic language refers to a broader category that also includes fixed expressions such as

idioms.

Previous studies have shown that lexical bundles play a significant role in improving

academic writing among EFL learners. Rafieyan et al. (2024), for instance, found that lexical

bundle instruction positively influenced several components of writing among Iranian ESP

students, leading to improved overall performance in writing tasks. These findings are

consistent with earlier research suggesting that explicit attention to formulaic sequences can

enhance cohesion and fluency in student writing. Similarly, Zhang et al. (2021) argue that a

strong command of lexical bundles is often indicative of proficient academic writers and

represents an essential skill for EFL students aiming to develop their writing competence.

Overall, these findings emphasize the significant contribution of lexical bundles to the

development of writing proficiency in EFL contexts.

Although previous studies have examined the role of lexical bundles in academic

writing and have compared their use across different groups of writers, such as novice and

expert writers (Zhang et al., 2021), several limitations remain in the existing literature. Much

of the research has focused on identifying the structural and functional patterns of lexical

bundles rather than exploring their relationship with the development of writing proficiency.

In addition, differences in research contexts and methodological approaches have produced

mixed findings regarding their role in writing performance (Appel, 2022). As a result, the

relationship between lexical bundle use and the development of writing proficiency among

EFL learners remains insufficiently explored. Further research is therefore needed to better

understand how the use of these recurrent language patterns may contribute to writing

development in EFL contexts.

Given the limitations identified in previous studies, a clearer synthesis of the existing

research is needed to better understand the role of lexical bundle use in the development of

writing proficiency among EFL learners. A systematic review of the available literature may

provide a broader perspective on how lexical bundles contribute to the organization and

quality of academic writing. Therefore, the present study conducts a systematic review of

previous research in order to examine the existing evidence on this topic and identify patterns

and gaps in the literature. In this context, the review addresses the following research

question: What is the relationship between lexical bundle use and EFL students’ writing

proficiency? The objective of this study is to examine the relationship between lexical bundle

use and the development of EFL students’ writing proficiency.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study adopted a qualitative documentary approach to examine previous research on the

relationship between lexical bundle use and writing proficiency in EFL contexts. Qualitative

research focuses on context, meaning, perspective, and subjectivity in the study of complex

social phenomena (Lim, 2024). In line with this approach, the present study analyzed existing

Christian Rea / Veronica Jarrin

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literature in order to identify patterns, findings, and trends related to the use of lexical bundles

in EFL writing.

The literature search was conducted in two major academic databases, Web of Science

and Scopus. These databases were selected because they index a broad range of peer-reviewed

literature in applied linguistics, language education, and academic writing, all of which are

directly relevant to the present review. The search process was conducted in March 2026,

using predefined search procedures across both databases, to identify recent studies on lexical

bundles, writing proficiency, and EFL writing contexts. By using these sources, the study

sought to ensure a more systematic and reliable identification of published peer-reviewed

research.

The search strategy was based on combinations of key terms related to lexical bundles,

writing, and EFL learning contexts. Specifically, the search included terms such as “lexical

bundles,” “writing proficiency,” “writing,” “academic writing,” and “EFL learners,” which

were combined using Boolean operators such as AND and OR according to the search format

of each database. Search strings were adapted to the technical requirements of Web of Science

and Scopus. To refine the results, the search was limited to articles published within the last

five years, open-access documents, and article-type publications. This procedure allowed the

identification of recent and relevant studies addressing the role of lexical bundles in EFL

writing.

The inclusion criteria focused on previous research on lexical bundles and their

relationship to writing, academic writing, or writing proficiency in EFL or L2 learning

contexts. Preference was given to publications that showed a direct or clear connection with

learner writing, academic writing, or writing development. Studies that did not address

lexical bundles, writing-related variables, or learner-oriented contexts were excluded.

Duplicate records and publications that were not sufficiently aligned with the objectives of

the review were also excluded.

Figure 1

PRISMA flow diagram of the study selection process (Page et al., 2021).

After the initial search, 133 records were identified and screened for relevance to the research

topic. The study selection process followed the PRISMA framework to support the

identification, screening, and selection of key studies. The selection process included the

The role of lexical bundle use in the development of writing proficiency among EFL students

removal of duplicate records, followed by a review of titles and abstracts to determine their

alignment with the study objective. The remaining studies were then classified according to

their degree of relevance as highly central, central, complementary, or excluded. This process

facilitated the identification of the most significant studies for the final review. Following this

process, a total of 19 studies (classified as central strong and central) were included in the final

analysis.

Key information was extracted from the selected studies in order to organize and

analyze the data systematically. For each article, aspects such as the research objective, study

context, methodological approach, and main findings were examined. The extracted

information was organized in an analytical matrix to facilitate comparison across studies. The

analysis followed a thematic approach focused on identifying common patterns, trends, and

contributions related to the use of lexical bundles in EFL writing and their connection to

writing proficiency.

Table 1

Summary of Central Strong Studies Included in the Review

Author(s)

Context/Participants

Methodology

Main Findings

Sanosi

Arab EFL learners and

scholars

Corpus-driven

study

Native and non-native writers

differed in the frequency, structure,

and functions of lexical bundles.

Wing Yee Siu

et al.

University-level L2

engineering students

Corpus-based

analysis

High-scoring papers used a wider

range of lexical bundles and

demonstrated greater phraseological

variation than low-scoring papers.

Xia & Kessler

Beginning- and

intermediate-level

Korean university EFL

learners

Corpus-based

analysis

Intermediate learners used lexical

bundles more frequently and

demonstrated differences in bundle

structures and functions across

argumentative rhetorical moves.

Appel et al.

High- and low-scoring

French academic

writing test takers

Corpus-based

analysis

High-level writers used more lexical

bundles and demonstrated greater

lexical and syntactic complexity than

low-level writers.

Vandeweerd

et al.

French proficiency

exam tasks (oral and

written)

Comparative

analysis

Lexical-grammatical features,

particularly lexical bundle diversity

and sophistication, significantly

predicted proficiency scores,

especially in written tasks.

RESULTS

The findings of the selected studies indicate that lexical bundles are closely related to the

development of writing proficiency in EFL contexts. Vandeweerd et al. (2023) reported that

phraseological complexity significantly predicted the proficiency scores assigned to students’

written texts, even when lexical complexity was taken into account. The study reported that

writing proficiency was associated not only with vocabulary knowledge, but also with

learners’ use of phraseological patterns in writing. In a similar way, Gak et al. (2023) observed

that although students who attended academic writing courses produced better abstracts,

these courses paid insufficient attention to structures such as lexical bundles, limiting

students’ understanding of their importance in academic writing. Likewise, Dan et al. (2024)

identified the influence of text-oriented bundles on academic writing, particularly in the

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organization and presentation of ideas. Overall, these studies reported relationships between

lexical bundle use and academic writing among EFL learners.

Several studies also revealed differences in the way learners with different proficiency

levels use lexical bundles in academic and argumentative writing. Appel et al. (2023) found

that high-level writers demonstrated a more sophisticated command of language through

more complex vocabulary and a wider range of lexical bundles. Similarly, Xia and Kessler

(2025) reported that intermediate Korean learners demonstrated greater ability in

argumentative writing by effectively presenting evidence, expressing claims, addressing

counterarguments, and drawing conclusions. The study found that higher proficiency

learners demonstrated more frequent use of three-word lexical bundles within rhetorical

moves. However, this study also indicated that the progression from beginner to intermediate

levels was mainly associated with increases in frequency rather than greater diversity in

bundle types. Comparable findings were reported by Oktavianti and Prayogi (2022), who

observed that learners underused text-oriented bundles and lacked structuring signals used

for organizing argumentative texts. Likewise, Jarkovská and Jarkovská (2025) noted that

novice L2 writers relied excessively on repetitive formulaic patterns, resulting in lower textual

variation. In a similar way, Taşkaya and Özbay (2023) found that Turkish EFL learners

avoided common lexical bundles and depended on a limited number of repeated patterns in

their essays. These studies reported that more proficient writers used lexical bundles with

greater variation than lower proficiency learners.

The reviewed studies also revealed important differences in the frequency, variety,

and structural use of lexical bundles between EFL learners and more proficient or native-like

writers. Wing Yee Siu et al. (2024) found that L2 writers tended to employ fewer lexical

bundles and a more limited range of bundle types in comparison with higher-scoring writers.

Their findings also showed that L2 learners relied more heavily on verbal and clausal bundles,

whereas more proficient writers used a greater number of passive structures and research-

oriented bundles to present information in academic texts. In addition, the findings indicated

that development in lexical bundle use was more strongly associated with increased

frequency than with greater diversity of bundle types. Similar patterns were identified by

Nguyen (2023), who reported that non-native writing contained significantly more verbal

constructions, while expert writing showed stronger use of nominal and prepositional

structures. Likewise, Li and Lei (2025) observed clear differences in the functional distribution

of bundles between Chinese and English writers, noting that Chinese students used more

research-oriented bundles but fewer participant-oriented bundles, in addition to using more

conversational patterns and fewer academic register conventions. Comparable findings were

presented by Akbulut (2020), who found that Turkish writers employed more result-oriented

bundles, whereas native English writers used lexical bundles more frequently to indicate

research objectives. Similarly, Yakut et al. (2021) identified differences in structural

preferences, with L1 writers favoring prepositional phrase bundles and L2 writers relying

more on noun phrase-related formulaic sequences. Additional evidence was provided by

Narkprom and Phoocharoensil (2022), whose findings revealed that Thai writers overused

verb-structured bundles and demonstrated limited use of noun- and preposition-based

bundles in academic dissertations. Finally, Aybek and Can (2025) reported that Turkish EFL

learners tended to overuse familiar lexical bundles while displaying less variation compared

to native speakers and greater reliance on repetitive lexical bundles. Overall, these studies

reported differences in lexical bundle use related to frequency, structural preferences, and

functional distribution across learner and native-like writing.

Some studies, however, reported more mixed findings regarding the relationship

between lexical bundle use and writing proficiency. Sanosi (2022) found no evident

The role of lexical bundle use in the development of writing proficiency among EFL students

differences between Arab learners and scholars in terms of the frequency, functions, or types

of lexical bundles used in academic writing. Nevertheless, the study also showed that native

English writers still differed from EFL writers in terms of the frequency, structure, and types

of lexical bundles employed. Similar observations were reported by Bao and Liu (2023), whose

findings indicated that both Chinese and American students mainly relied on text-oriented

and research-oriented bundles, while participant-oriented bundles appeared less frequently

in both groups. In contrast, Öztürk and Taşçi (2023) identified noticeable cross-linguistic

influences in Turkish students’ academic writing, showing that Turkish learners overused

certain four-word lexical bundles in English theses, many of which had direct or near-

equivalents in Turkish. The authors also found that some lexical patterns commonly used in

Turkish academic writing appeared repeatedly in the English texts produced by Turkish

students. In addition, Shin et al. (2025) identified differences in semantic consistency between

learner and native corpora, with learner texts displaying a more balanced distribution of

positive and negative affective sequences as well as a higher proportion of inconsistent

patterns. Overall, the findings indicated that although some similarities existed between

learner and expert writing, differences continued to appear in the structural, functional, and

discourse-related use of lexical bundles across EFL and native-like academic writing contexts.

DISCUSSION

The collective evidence reviewed in this study suggests that lexical bundle use is meaningfully

associated with the development of writing proficiency among EFL learners. The results

reported by Vandeweerd et al. (2023) particularly reinforce the idea that writing proficiency

is not limited to vocabulary knowledge alone, but also involves learners’ ability to employ

phraseological patterns effectively within written discourse. This tendency appears to align

with the broader perspective presented by Puimège (2024), who emphasizes the centrality of

formulaic sequences in L2 discourse, as well as with Nordlund and Norberg’s (2025) argument

that formulaic language supports language production and comprehension processes. In this

sense, the reviewed evidence suggests that lexical bundles function as important linguistic

resources that contribute to the construction of coherent and academically appropriate texts

in EFL contexts.

The reviewed studies also highlight the importance of lexical bundles in the rhetorical

organization of academic writing. Dan et al. (2024) emphasized the influence of text-oriented

bundles in organizing and presenting ideas, while Oktavianti and Prayogi (2022) observed

that learners frequently underused structuring signals in argumentative writing. These

tendencies appear to support Wang et al.’s (2025) argument that effective writing requires

familiarity with the linguistic patterns that characterize academic genres. Similarly, the

insufficient attention to lexical bundles reported by Gak et al. (2023) indicates that many

academic writing courses continue to prioritize general writing instruction without explicitly

addressing the phraseological features associated with academic discourse. Collectively, these

observations seem to reinforce the notion that lexical bundles contribute not only to linguistic

fluency but also to textual cohesion and rhetorical clarity in academic writing.

Another recurring pattern across the reviewed studies concerns the differences

observed between writers with different proficiency levels. The tendencies identified by

Appel et al. (2023), Xia and Kessler (2025), and Jarkovská and Jarkovská (2025) suggest that

more proficient learners demonstrate greater flexibility and rhetorical awareness in their use

of lexical bundles, whereas lower proficiency learners tend to rely on repetitive or limited

formulaic patterns. Likewise, Taşkaya and Özbay (2023) reported that Turkish EFL learners

depended on a restricted number of repeated bundles, which appears to reflect a narrower

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range of phraseological resources. These tendencies align with Zhang et al.’s (2021) claim that

a strong command of lexical bundles is characteristic of proficient academic writers.

Therefore, the reviewed evidence indicates that advanced writing proficiency involves not

only greater exposure to lexical bundles, but also a more strategic and context-sensitive use of

formulaic language within academic discourse.

At the same time, some studies suggest that lexical bundle development may not occur

in a fully linear manner. Xia and Kessler (2025), for example, observed that increases in

proficiency were associated more strongly with higher frequency of lexical bundle use than

with broader structural diversity. Similarly, Wing Yee Siu et al. (2024) reported that

development in lexical bundle use appeared to be linked primarily to frequency rather than

variation in bundle types. These tendencies suggest that learners initially become familiar

with recurrent patterns before developing more flexible phraseological competence. The

evidence, therefore, appears to highlight the complexity of phraseological development in

EFL writing, particularly because increased use of lexical bundles does not automatically

imply sophisticated or rhetorically effective language production.

The reviewed studies likewise reveal consistent structural and functional differences

between learner writing and more proficient or native-like academic discourse. Nguyen

(2023), Narkprom and Phoocharoensil (2022), and Yakut et al. (2021) collectively illustrate that

EFL learners tend to rely more heavily on verbal constructions and verb-structured bundles,

whereas native-like or expert writing demonstrates greater use of noun phrase and

prepositional phrase bundles. In a similar way, Wing Yee Siu et al. (2024) observed that

higher-scoring writers employed more passive and research-oriented bundles, while Li and

Lei (2025) reported that Chinese learners relied more heavily on conversational and research-

oriented patterns, but underused participant-oriented bundles associated with academic

discourse conventions. These structural tendencies indicate that advanced academic writing

is associated with linguistic forms that allow writers to express ideas more formally,

impersonally, and analytically. Consequently, lexical bundle use appears to reflect not only

language proficiency, but also learners’ familiarity with the discourse conventions of

academic communities.

Cross-linguistic influence also emerged as an important factor in the reviewed studies.

Öztürk and Taşçi (2023) identified repeated use of lexical bundles in English theses that closely

resembled patterns commonly employed in Turkish academic writing, while Li and Lei (2025)

highlighted functional differences between Chinese and English writers. Similarly, Shin et al.

(2025) observed differences in semantic consistency between learner and native corpora, with

learner writing displaying more inconsistent affective patterns. These tendencies suggest that

learners transfer rhetorical preferences and discourse conventions from their first language

into English academic writing. Such observations appear to support Gu and Li’s (2024)

description of formulaic language as context-dependent and pragmatically shaped across

communicative situations. The variation identified across learner populations, therefore,

helps explain why some studies reported differing relationships between lexical bundle use

and writing proficiency.

Although the general tendency across the reviewed studies supports a relationship

between lexical bundle use and writing proficiency, the evidence also includes more mixed or

nuanced observations. Sanosi (2022), for instance, reported no substantial differences between

Arab learners and scholars regarding the frequency and functions of lexical bundles, although

differences remained visible when native English writers were considered. Likewise, Bao and

Liu (2023) observed similarities between Chinese and American students in the use of text-

oriented and research-oriented bundles. These observations indicate that certain structural

and functional aspects of lexical bundle use develop similarly across writer groups,

The role of lexical bundle use in the development of writing proficiency among EFL students

particularly within shared academic genres. However, the continued presence of structural,

rhetorical, and discourse-related differences across several studies suggests that

phraseological competence continues to vary across EFL and native-like writing contexts. This

interpretation appears to align with Appel’s (2022) observation that methodological and

contextual differences have contributed to fragmented findings within the existing literature.

The reviewed evidence also appears to carry important pedagogical implications for

EFL academic writing instruction. The repeated underuse of organizational and rhetorically

functional bundles reported by Oktavianti and Prayogi (2022), Taşkaya and Özbay (2023), and

Gak et al. (2023) indicates the need for more explicit instruction regarding the communicative

and discourse-related functions of lexical bundles. In this regard, the positive effects of lexical

bundle instruction identified by Rafieyan et al. (2024) appear to reinforce the pedagogical

value of incorporating formulaic language into academic writing courses. These tendencies

suggest that explicit attention to lexical bundles could help learners develop a stronger

awareness of academic discourse conventions and improve their ability to produce more

cohesive and rhetorically effective texts. At the same time, the reviewed studies seem to

indicate that instruction should emphasize contextualized and purposeful use of lexical

bundles rather than simple memorization of recurrent sequences.

Overall, the collective evidence reviewed in this study suggests that lexical bundle use

is closely associated with the development of writing proficiency among EFL learners,

particularly in relation to discourse organization, rhetorical effectiveness, and academic

tend to employ lexical bundles with greater flexibility, structural sophistication, and

communicative functionality, whereas lower proficiency learners often demonstrate more

repetitive and limited phraseological patterns. Nevertheless, the evidence also highlights that

lexical bundle use appears to be shaped by contextual, methodological, and cross-linguistic

factors, which may explain the variation reported across studies. Consequently, the

relationship between lexical bundle use and writing proficiency should be understood as

complex and multidimensional rather than absolute or uniform across all EFL academic

writing contexts.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this systematic review suggest that lexical bundle use is closely associated

with the development of writing proficiency among EFL learners. The reviewed evidence

indicates that more proficient writers tend to employ lexical bundles with greater rhetorical

functionality, structural sophistication, and discourse awareness, whereas lower proficiency

learners often rely on more repetitive and limited formulaic patterns (Zhang et al., 2021; Xia

& Kessler, 2025). In addition, lexical bundles appear to contribute to important aspects of

academic writing, including textual organization, cohesion, and rhetorical effectiveness (Dan

et al., 2024). However, the reviewed studies also suggest that the relationship between lexical

bundle use and writing proficiency is influenced by contextual, methodological, and cross-

linguistic factors, indicating that phraseological development in EFL writing should be

understood as a complex and multidimensional process rather than a fully uniform

phenomenon.

The findings of this review also appear to carry important pedagogical implications

for EFL academic writing instruction. The recurrent underuse of organizational and

rhetorically functional lexical bundles among lower proficiency learners suggests that many

students may not develop sufficient awareness of the phraseological patterns commonly

associated with academic discourse (Oktavianti & Prayogi, 2022; Taşkaya & Özbay, 2023). In

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this regard, the reviewed evidence indicates that explicit and contextualized instruction on

lexical bundles may help learners improve textual cohesion, rhetorical organization, and

overall writing effectiveness, particularly considering the positive effects of lexical bundle

instruction reported by Rafieyan et al. (2024). Furthermore, the findings suggest that academic

writing instruction should emphasize not only the frequency of lexical bundle use, but also

their functional appropriateness, structural variation, and communicative purpose within

specific academic genres. Consequently, greater pedagogical attention to formulaic language

may contribute to the development of more flexible and academically appropriate writing

practices among EFL learners.

Despite the contributions of this systematic review, some limitations should be

acknowledged. First, the review was limited to studies published in the Web of Science and

Scopus databases, which may have excluded other relevant research related to lexical bundles

and EFL writing. In addition, the selection process focused only on open-access articles

published within the last five years, which may have restricted the inclusion of additional

studies on the topic. Another limitation is that the reviewed studies were conducted in

different EFL contexts and with different learner populations, which may have contributed to

variations in the reported findings. Consequently, the findings of this review should be

interpreted within the scope of the selected studies and research criteria.

Future research should continue examining the relationship between lexical bundle

use and writing proficiency among learners of English as a Foreign Language across different

proficiency levels and educational contexts. In particular, longitudinal studies may help

clarify how changes in the frequency, structural variation, and functional use of lexical

bundles are associated with the development of writing proficiency over time. Such research

could provide further evidence on the contribution of lexical bundles to rhetorical

organization, textual cohesion, and overall writing performance.

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